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A Reading Specialist's View of the Reading Process
An excerpt from "Integrating Literacy & Math/Science Instruction"
Richard D. McCallum, Ph.D.
Graduate School of Education
U.C. Berkeley

In brief, literacy learning is composed of three key dimensions: cognitive processes; socio-contextual influences, and; developmental growth and change. These three areas, and the interactions amongst them, form the theoretical basis for our current understanding of the issues associated with literacy development. Key decisions in assessment, instructional and program planning are all contingent upon these issues.

In regard to cognitive processes, reading researchers have spent a great deal of energy validating what have been termed processor(1) or cueing system(2) models of reading development. Both of these cognitive models have extensive research support, represent our most current understanding of the cognitive processes involved in learning to read, and have been used extensively in professional development programs designed to increase literacy learning. In brief these cognitive models hold that strategic readers utilize four types of information while reading: phonological, graphic, syntactic, and semantic.

In the phonological domain readers draw upon their oral language knowledge to understand the sounds and sound patterns that operate in English. This knowledge includes the segmenting of words into discrete sounds, the blending of individual sounds into sound patterns and words, and the notion of rhyming, i.e. that words share similar sound patterns.

In the graphic domain readers draw upon their knowledge of the graphic dimensions of print. Specifically this involves letter recognition, identification of sight words (those which are identified automatically without recourse to sounding out or other strategies), use of graphics and illustrations, and attention to graphic textual conventions such as punctuation, capitalization, and directionality.

In the syntactic domain, readers draw upon their knowledge of the patterns and conventions that operate in English usage such as notions of appropriate word order, the organization of phrases and clauses, and the organization of information at other levels of discourse structure (i.e. paragraph, story, chapter, etc.). Syntactic rules govern the way semantic information is organized and presented in text.

The semantic domain represents each individual's general store of world knowledge, i.e., their generic background or conceptual knowledge. This domain includes their auditory or receptive vocabularies, and the broad range of processes that are characteristic of cognition. These processes include the ability to draw inferences, make predictions, monitor comprehension, and the ability to analyze and critique information. In addition, the semantic domain holds our knowledge of text types such as narrative and exposition.

The goal of both of these models, and the instruction which follows from them, is to develop "strategic readers." Strategic reading is defined as the ability to selectively utilize information from each of the processors or cueing systems to make meaning from the text being read. This notion of strategic reading is directly relevant to the notion of "balanced" reading instruction. In a balanced reading approach, the focus of instruction is not upon any single processor. Rather, the focus is upon all 3 processors (phonological, graphic, and semantic) and how they must work in tandem to help readers make meaning from text -- especially unfamiliar text. Balanced reading instruction equates with teaching strategic reading.

Although these cognitive models are central to the nature of the reading development, they do not fully explain literacy learning and development. The language knowledge implicit in the cueing system model does not occur in a vacuum: one cannot ignore the broader social-contextual or socio-historical factors that impact upon literacy and literacy learning. Knowledge of the role of socio-contextual variables is critical to understanding cognitive development and learning. Individuals are clearly affected by the nature of their cultural experience. To this end, any complete view of literacy development must address the "contextual" variables that help to shape literacy learning.

Such models address the nature of specific cultural contexts and their role in literacy learning. These contexts include the role of the family, the role of the classroom and teachers, and the role of the broader community. These broader social forces help to shape student's views of what constitutes literacy, the value they place on literacy, and their styles of approaching such tasks. The importance of these contexts cannot be ignored.

The third key dimension of literacy learning is developmental growth and change. Change is a key characteristic of both cognitive and socio-contextual variables and is an issue central to any conceptualization of literacy learning. Such change occurs at a variety of levels. Clearly there are physiological issues involved in learning. The nature of individual students' visual, auditory, and information processing abilities are central to language and literacy learning. The qualitative and quantitative changes in cognition and learning find their roots in both physiology and in the nature of the literacy activities present in their social environments. Literacy learning is facilitated by others as individuals engage in literacy activities in social contexts over time.

An upshot of this notion of change is that what it means to be a "fluent" reader, or to be "literate", changes as children get older and move on to more challenging tasks. According to The Literacy Dictionary,(3) a fluent reader is defined two ways. First, fluent readers are those "whose performance exceeds normal expectation with respect to age and ability; independent reader." In addition the definition also encompasses "any person who reads smoothly, without hesitation and with comprehension" (p. 85). The first part of this definition captures the developmental nature of fluency (i.e. that the term means something different at different ages and grades). The second component of the definition captures the cognitive nature of the task. Clearly, a fluent reader is attentive to the syntactic, graphic, and semantic dimensions of the text.

An understanding of reading fluency and the strategies necessary for its development are built upon each child's knowledge of the basic linguistic elements at issue in reading. That is, as students grow and develop, their awareness of the patterns that exist in language broaden -- from a general understanding of the role of written language (that print carries meaning), to an understanding of the alphabetic principle (that letters represent sounds), to an understanding of a "word" (the combination of letters that signify a concept), to an understanding of a clause and phrase, and on to the sentence, paragraph and discourse levels of text. Each child's understanding of the nuances of literacy develop incrementally over time through repeated exposure and opportunity to interact with language.

Examination of these three key issues in literacy provides not only an outline of the variables that impinge upon literacy learning, they also provide a clear insight into the variables that must be addressed and considered when curricular programs are developed and implemented in schools. In other words, literacy initiatives may be sound theoretically in terms of the cognitive issues at play in the cueing system model, but how will these innovations address the social and contextual variables that are characteristic of schools and communities? Are these recommendations consistent with what we know about developmental differences and what children can reasonably be asked to do? For, if we do not consider issues such as individual & teacher development and community beliefs and values, we have little chance of creating systemic education reform.

(1) This model is based upon the work of M. J. Adams that is found in:

Adams , M.J. (1995). Learning to Read. New York, NY: MIT Press.

(2) This model is based upon the work of M. M. Clay that is found in:

Clay, M.M. (1979) The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties. Portsmouth, NH: Heineman Inc.

Clay, M.M. (1993). Reading Recovery: A Guidebook for Teachers in training. Portsmouth, NH: Heineman, Inc.

(3) Harris, T.L., Hodges, R.E. (Eds.) The literacy dictionary: The Vocabulary of Reading & Writing. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

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